![]() ![]() Several theories have been put forward for the decline of Damascus steel sword production. ![]() It is believed that leaves and other woody biomass were used for adding carbon to the metal, and it was found in recent research that plant fibers can result in carbon nanotubes. The process for the production of wootz steel is unknown, and attempts at reproduction have largely been unsuccessful. The Damascus swords were forged from wootz steel ingots imported between the 3rd and 17th centuries from India and Sri Lanka. “Damascus steel” was named after the capital city of Syria. Image Source: Studiolum, Rahil Alipour Ata Abadi ![]() Production of these swords stopped in the 1750s, and the technique involved in making them has been lost ever since. Swords made from Damascus steel until the 17th century had carbon nanotubes and nanowires that gave them exceptional strength and sharpness. Though there are several theories as to what it could have been made of including saltpeter, quicklime, pine resin, calcium phosphate, sulfur, naphtha, or niter. The fire was deployed using pressurized nozzles or tubular projectors fixed on warships, through hand-held projectors, or as early grenades in the form of cloth-wrapped balls. The Byzantine “Greek fire” was a closely guarded state secret that assisted the Empire with victories during many wars and especially over the Arabs during two sieges of Constantinople. Its composition, however, has been lost to history and attempts to reproduce it have so far failed. Developed in 672 CE, “Greek fire” was used by the Byzantine Empire during naval battles to attack ships as it could burn even on water. ![]()
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